To me, travel has always been a source of pleasure, relaxation, and a way to feel connected to the world. I have always enjoyed travelling for the emotional benefits it brings about and its ability to bridge cultures and open perspectives. However, it wasn't until planning my gap year in 2019 that I began to pay attention to the distinctions between travellers and tourists. While the former are active and ‘strenuously in search of people, adventure, and experience’ (Boorstin, 1962), the latter are passive and frankly more typical when it comes to imagining travel in the current day.
Reading The McDonaldization of Society and taking SOCI 57H led me to consider how the forces of rationalization have transformed the type of experiences that we now seek. With the widespread availability of online, computer-generated alternatives, travel has become increasingly accessible to the broader population—changing the way it is experienced by most. Because of this interest, I decided to write my paper on the rationalization of travel, and more specifically, the role of travel agents in facilitating and undergoing this change.
Ritzer and Rationalization
While rationalization as a concept was originated by Max Weber, a late nineteenth-century sociologist, rationalization has been expanded and applied to modern context by George Ritzer. Shaped by four dimensions—control, calculability, efficiency, and predictability—rationalization is best described as a process used to produce maximal results using minimal effort (Ritzer, 2021).
While McDonald’s serves as a paradigm for this process, these principles of rationalization are beginning to dominate more sectors of society. Done to attract customers and maximize profits, these mechanisms apply not only to food, shopping malls, and education, but also to the travel industry. Through an analysis of the history of travel and tourism, I explore how the role of travel agents has been transformed by theories of rationalization through the growing commodification of travel, shifting understandings of travel versus tourism, and the development of related technologies and other significant milestones.
Pre-modern times (1613-1785)
The Grand Tour Era marked a height of luxurious travel and tourism activities, eventually spread among those with time and money (Cook et al., 2006). Beginning in the 19th century, travel was mostly acquired through geographical knowledge, transportation, etc., and people mostly moved by foot. During this time, travel, and the accompanying knowledge that came with it, was viewed as a social and educational status symbol (Cook et al., 2006). Having travelled, people were perceived as more 'cultured', and it became a fashionable activity among those with time and money (Cook et al., 2006).
industrial revolution/the mobility era (1800-1944)
1750 marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, where major economic and technological advances led to individuals gaining greater amounts of free time (Cook et al., 2006). Alongside these changes, people found new ways to spend this precious leisure time, including through travel. As individuals became increasingly tethered to the structures and demands of industrial life, higher personal incomes paired with the global integration of the market and more efficient forms of transportation led to an increased availability and affordability of travel.
1841: thomas cook organizes the first group tour
Thomas Cook founded the first travel agency by his name in November 1841, establishing ‘inclusive independent travel’ and affordable packages (oureducare, 2020). The success of this tour led to the demand for similar arranged experiences, allowing travel to become a product to be purchased. As a result, this change signified a shift in the role of tourists from a position of control to that of a passenger. Because the role of a travel agent was developed, this enabled tourists to hire someone else to complete the task of research and trip planning. This increased efficiency in having the job done for you, predictability in knowing what to expect from their travels, and the calculability of knowing the exact breakdown of costs, time, etc. liberated tourists from planning their own trips and allowed them to maximize their free time. This also placed most of the control in the hands of travel agents, as they were given free reign to design itineraries for their customers.
Air travel and mass production of the Model T
Shortly after, the introduction of air travel and affordable automobiles further reduced the time it took to travel and increased efficiency of travel as a whole. In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright launched the first successful flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, and in 1914, Henry Ford’s mass production of the Model T granted individual’s the freedom to travel (Cook et al., 2006). These breakthroughs also made travelling a more accessible activity—even for those with less free time.
the modern era (first half of the 20th century)
The Modern Era marked the beginning of mass tourism. This was caused by factors such as George Westinghouse’s implementation of the paid vacation (which aimed to increase productivity by allowing annual breaks for workers to travel) (Cook et al., 2006), the mass production of cars, the newly introduced franchising development model which led to the boom of motel and hotel businesses, the introduction of jet travel, and the development of the Diners Club card, a travel-emphasized credit card which transformed the way travel-related experiences were produced and consumed (Cook et al., 2006).
The Development of the Diners Club Credit Card
The credit card helped make pleasure-driven consumption more accessible to the broader population by transforming leisure travel into a more affordable commodity (Weaver, 2005). Payment databases would provide travel agents with otherwise untapped data about card users, which would enhance calculability and inform them of significant customer behaviour patterns. This systematised process of consumer credit also improved efficiency by enabling travellers to purchase things they otherwise wouldn’t have been able to through online systems. These rewards became a form of international currency, used by credit card and travel companies to influence individuals' choices in spending.
SABRE and electronic booking systems
In 1978, American Airlines expanded its access to electronic reservation system, SABRE, to travel agencies (Cook et al., 2006), helping to streamline the data processing process for travel agents. SABRE helps travel agents manage problems such as miscommunication and under/over booking by providing them with the tools to efficiently “search, price, book, and ticket travel services provided by airlines, hotels, car rental companies, rail providers and tour operators” (Sabre, 2014). By the end of the decade, there were over 130,000 travel agency terminals worldwide that utilized the SABRE system, which helped bring about an overall increase in efficiency and calculability in the travel industry (Sabre, 2014).
CURRENT TIMES
The 21st century saw the beginning of widespread internet access, the opening of international borders, and increased wealth and mobility of citizens in increasingly industrialized countries, which again reshaped the relationship people had with travel. Reasons for travelling can be narrowed down to three main categories: 1) Vacation and leisure, 2) To visit friends or relatives, and 3) Business or professional (Mackintosh, 2012).
The rise of the internet and travel-related platforms
With the widespread availability of information online, this commodified travel experience also succeeded in meeting tourists’ demands for ease, comfort, reliability, and affordability and satisfied their needs as a source of pleasure and recreation (Mackintosh, 2012). The internet help put the process back under the control of travellers, with notable platform developments such as TripAdvisor in 2000, AirBnB in 2007, and Google Flights in 2011. This increases calculability as individuals have full access to prices, dates, and other quantifiable information and heightens predictability as consumers gain more certainty over their purchases.
Travel blogs and social media
Another common occurrence in the 21st century is the prevalence of travel blogs and websites, which often allows individuals to offer travel advice based on experience, rather than expertise. Social media is also a powerful way to help travel agents reach new audiences and target specific niches. This way, they can utilize features such as website analytics and SEO to maximize calculability and use this data to better understand their customer base. Although travel agencies are being seriously challenged by the rise of the internet, their value should be emphasized for the things the internet cannot provide. Their abundance of experience can offer a unique perspective—especially for customers demanding a specific, tailored experience.
COVID-19 AND THE FUTURE OF TRAVEL
This summer, 2021, as more and more people are getting vaccinated against this virus, travel regulations are beginning to relax and vaccinated people are able to travel safely within the US without having to test or quarantine (Bui & Kliff, 2021). People are thus expecting a spike in the supply for summer flights, following a rebirth of travel.
In the near future, it is likely that the roles of travel agents will shift from being purely about travel to also tracking vaccine requirements, border openings, and other pandemic-related developments. They may have to learn to become ‘Covid Navigators’ (Sloss, 2021), providing professional advice not only on the location but also specific details about safety protocols in each location visited.
irrationalities of rationalization
While rational systems are systems designed to provide greater predictability, efficiency, calculability, and control, Ritzer (1994) states that “rational systems are [also] unreasonable systems.” The process of rationalization inevitably leads to irrationality, and this may be in the form of barriers to interpersonal exchanges, behavioural uniformity, growing inequalities, etc.
Loss of authenticity
The increased efficiency and predictability in the provision of leisure comes at the cost of authenticity. While travellers are active and ‘strenuously in search of people, adventure, and experience’ (Boorstin, 1962), tourists are passive—awaiting interesting things to happen to him. Rationalization has paved the way for more tourists, not travellers: whereas significant landmarks and sites previously served as sources of national identity by “connecting travelers to the sublime landscapes of the nation as well as America’s literary and artistic movements” (Bachin, 2020), they are now regarded as superficial and meaningless, designed for the commodified tourist experience. As a result, these packages end up sacrificing some of the lure of the destination, as it is packaged in a way that suits the tourist, not the actual specialties of the place. Because of this, authentic experiences are harder to acquire, thus making them more of a luxury than the standard of travel.
The paradox of choice
As the internet puts part of the process back under control of travelers, it is assumed to enable individuals to maximise their free time. However, this flood of new options provided by the internet—allowing customers to readily compare flights, itineraries, etc.—may have the opposite effect. The paradox of choice enabled by the plethora of options ultimately demands a more time-consuming effort for an otherwise relaxing, stress-free experience. As a result, the rationalization of this industry may lead to the unintended consequences of minimizing one’s leisure time.
Travel advice and privilege
Through the internet, it has also become easier for anyone to occupy the role of a travel agent by offering travel advice and prepackaged itineraries. However, this creates further disparities in terms of who is able to take on this role. While guidebooks were often created by locals from the area, now, travel bloggers and vloggers (whom many take travel advice from) are often individuals who fit a specific identity. Oftentimes, their authority develops from experience, or occasionally through buying followers or subscribers to enhance their public image, and arriving at this level of expertise requires a varying levels of privilege.
The loss of human touch
People continue to value the human touch that travel agents provide, and the emotional component of travel is difficult to rationalize. While some value the ease and comfort that comes with the predictability of travel, this imperative for standardization also leads to a loss of spontaneity.
concluding thoughts
While the travel industry has experienced major shifts over different eras of time, the forces of rationalization continue to create an indisputable impact on the roles of travel agents in facilitating this leisure activity. As explored throughout this page, rationalization has made the overall process of arranging travel much more efficient, calculable, and predictable—while increasingly putting travellers in control. However, this may come at the cost of authenticity and spontaneity and pose unexpected consequences by creating a paradox of choice. Moving forward, the need for official travel agents may decline, but for those who continue to value a personal experience and one that tailors to their unique needs, travel agents are here to stay. They will, however, have to be equipped with the tools and technology to adapt to the changing times and be able to distinguish themselves through their networks and other interpersonal skills.
References
Bui, Q., & Kliff, S. (2021, April 14). It's Not Just You: Many Are Placing Bets on Summer Travel. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/14/upshot/airfares-summer-travel.html.
Cook, R. A., Yale, L. J., & Marqua, J. J. (2006). Introducing the World’s Largest Industry, Tourism. In Tourism: the business of travel (pp. 2–32). essay, Pearson Prentice Hall.
History of Travel Agency: First Travel Agency: Steam Ship: Thomas Cook. oureducare. (2020, June 25). https://oureducare.com/tourism/history-of-travel-agency/.
Mackintosh, W. (2012). “Ticketed Through”: The Commodification of Travel in the Nineteenth Century. Journal of the Early Republic, 32(1), 61–89. https://doi.org/10.1353/jer.2012.0001
Ritzer, G. (2021). The McDonaldization of society: into the digital age (10th ed.). SAGE.
The Sabre Story. Sabre. (2014). https://www.sabre.com/files/Sabre-History.pdf.
Sloss, L. (2021, April 14). Make Way for the Travel Agents. Again. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/14/travel/summer-vacation-travel-agents.html.
Weaver, A. (2005). 'Passports to Pleasure': Credit Cards and Contemporary TravelA. The International Journal of Tourism Research, 7(3), 151–159.
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