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Axis and Allies The Leaders of world war ii

The Kennesaw State University Department of Museums, Archives and Rare Books (MARB) presents exhibitions, public programs, collections, and educational services supporting KSU’s mission and encouraging dialogue about the past and its significance today. The Museum of History and Holocaust Education, as a unit of MARB, has developed a series of online modules, including this one, for university students to explore pivotal moments from the history of World War II and the Holocaust.

This online unit focuses on the primary leaders of the Axis and Allied powers during World War II. Highlighting a diversity of primary and secondary source materials, this unit examines the life and ideologies of the leaders of the six major powers in World War II.

Image: Art installation in the MHHE exhibition Threads of Memory. Courtesy Museum of History and Holocaust Education at Kennesaw State University

Essential Questions

Using the primary source material and content in this online unit, respond to the three essential questions found below. In your responses, include evidence from the content in this online unit. Please refer to the directions provided by your instructor on submitting your responses to these essential questions as well as to the questions posed throughout this unit.

  1. How did the respective leaders of World War II contribute to the outcome of the war?
  2. How did context influence the influential power of leaders? How did these leaders seek to influence others?
  3. How did the leaders of the Axis and Allied powers during World War II rise to power? In what ways were these journeys to power similar and different?

Image: The Blitz on London. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

The Axis leaders of world war ii

Images: Mussolini giving a speech, 1940. Courtesy Library of Congress; Hitler at the Buckeburg harvest festival of 1934. Courtesy Imperial War Museum; Crown Prince Hirohito in a carriage in 1918. Courtesy Library of Congress

Italy: Benito Mussolini

Image: Benito Mussolini, 1925. Courtesy Library of Congress

Mussolini

The Rise of Facism in Post War Italy

At the conclusion of World War I, Italy was on the brink of economic collapse and began to fear a communist uprising. Benito Mussolini, seeking an interventionist stance, split from the Socialist Party and founded the Fascist Party. The Fascist Party was characterized by its nationalistic, class driven, non-democratic ideologies. The party fought for a more aggressive foreign policy and increased militarization.

Image: Benito Mussolini, 1925. Courtesy Library of Congress

Mussolini gained support from unemployed World War I veterans. These veterans formed the Black Shirts, an armed militia who terrorized political opponents. Becoming known as “Il Duce," Mussolini threatened Rome with the Black Shirts and demanded control. The king, fearing an Italian civil war, agreed to his demands and made Mussolini the new Prime Minister of Italy. By 1925, Mussolini had abolished all opposing political parties, effectively securing his seat of power.

"Revolutions are not made by Saints." - Benito Mussolini

Image: Mussolini Addresses Rome. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Watch the following video on Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy. As you view this video, consider the following questions:

  1. How did Mussolini gain the support of the masses when he came to power?
  2. How did Mussolini influence both the public and other leaders around the world?
"We have buried the putrid corpse of liberty" - Benito Mussolini, 1934

Mussolini

Abyssinia and the Munich Agreement

Although both Italy and Abyssinia were members of the League of Nations, Italy attacked Abyssinia in December 1934. Italy used poisonous gas in the attack, resulting in 500,000 deaths. The League of Nations failed to intervene when Abyssinia requested, harming the credibility of the organization. Remaining uncriticized by Germany after the attack, Italy began friendly relations with Germany.

In 1938, Britain, France, Germany, and Italy held a conference in Munich, Germany. The result, called the Munich Agreement, allowed Germany to seize the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia with the promise that Germany would seize no more lands. During the conference, Mussolini acted as a peacemaker between Hitler and the other leaders, foreshadowing his position in the coming war.

Image: Neville Chamberlain, Edouard Daladier, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Galeazzo Ciano at the Munich Agreement. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Mussolini

The Pact of Steel and Italian Antisemitism

In order to appease Hitler, Mussolini began to impose antisemitic and purity laws in Italy. The unofficial alliance between Italy and Germany culminated in the Pact of Steel signed on May 22, 1939, creating the Axis Powers. It ensured that if either country went to war, the other would follow.

On June 10, 1940, following Germany’s invasion of France, Italy declared war on France and Great Britain.

"Let us have a dagger between our teeth, a bomb in our hand, and an infinite scorn in our hearts." - Benito Mussolini

Image: Hitler and Mussolini meet in 1943. Courtesy German Federal Archives

Mussolini

Fall from Power

On July 25, 1943, the Italian population felt as though Italy was losing the war, and voted Mussolini out of power. When Hitler found that Italy had accepted conditions of peace from the Allied nations, he invaded Northern Italy, splitting the country. Mussolini became the puppet leader of the northern Italian Social Republic.

After Allied forces invaded the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini was captured and executed.

Image: Corpses of Mussolini and his associates hung by their feet. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Germany: Adolf Hitler

Image: Adolf Hitler profile. Courtesy Library of Congress

Watch the following video on Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Post World War I Germany. As you view this video, consider the following questions:

  1. How did the situation in Germany after World War I provide an opportunity for Hitler and the Nazi Party to rise to power?
  2. How did Adolf Hitler seek to influence others?
  3. How might Hitler's journey to power be similar or different to Mussolini's?
"I know that fewer people are won over by the written word than by the spoken word and that every great movement on this earth owes its growth to great speakers and not to great writers." - Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, 1924

Hitler

The Volk and Racial Purity

The idea of Aryan purity stemmed from the ideals of the Völkisch movement. The Volk, based in ethnic nationalism and folklore, embraced a return to nature, organic growth of unity and community, and ethnic superiority.

The concept of the Volk, as perpetuated by Hitler and the Nazi Party, led to the Holocaust – the identification and systematic genocide of millions of people, including Jews, Roma, the disabled, homosexuals, political opponents, and more. Fueled by propaganda and the need for blame, Germany began the identification of Jewish people though the Star of David, the isolation of those citizens as they were forcibly moved to ghettos, and the transportation of individuals to concentration camps, where most would die.

"The very first essential for success is a perpetually constant and regular employment of violence." - Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, 1924.

Image: Citizen of Warsaw, Poland, wearing the Star of David, 1940. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Hitler

Appeasement and the Start of World War II

When Hitler rose to power, he began to test the Treaty of Versailles. He built up the German army, and seeing no consequences dealt for this action or Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia, he began to seize lands. In 1936, Hitler marched his troops into the Rhineland, which became a demilitarized buffer between Germany and France after World War I.

Over the next two years, Hitler continued to seize lands with little consequence, including Austria and Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland. The international community continued to appease Hitler in hopes of avoiding another world war. Despite their efforts, on September 1, 1939, war broke out when Germany invaded Poland.

Image: Austria is annexed into Germany, 1938. Courtesy Library of Congress

Hitler

The "Second Front" and Defeat

As Germany conquered massive areas of Europe, a few battles changed the course of the war. In 1943, after suffering major losses, German forces surrendered at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1944, Allied troops stormed the beaches of Normandy in France, which opened an opportunity for a “Second Front” for the Allies. The Allies liberated France and pushed their way toward Germany.

On April 30, 1945, Hitler committed suicide to escape capture by Soviet troops.

Image: Sergeant R.S. Baker looking at fallen Nazi eagle in the ruins of the Reich Chancellery, 1945. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Japan: Emperor Hirohito

Image: Crown Prince Hirohito on a horse, 1921. Courtesy Library of Congress

Emperor Hirohito

Japan's Constitutional Monarch

In 1926, Hirohito became Emperor of Japan. At this point, Japan’s international status was on the decline. The League of Nations voted against a racial equality law proposed by Japan, the United States passed an Exclusionary Act which prevented Japanese immigration, and Japan’s World War I alliance with Great Britain had expired. This, along with the Great Depression, sparked military imperialism in Japan.

Image: Crown Prince Hirohito (right) with Gerneral Akiyama (left), 1921. Courtesy Library of Congress

Hirohito

Military Imperialism and the Invasion of China

In 1931, decisions based on military imperialism had begun. That year, Japan attacked their own railroad to provide justification to invade China. After gaining control of Manchuria, a Japanese-controlled puppet government was put in place.

Furthermore, the Second Sino-Japanese War between China and Japan began in 1937. Both the Soviet Union and the United States aided China in their fight against Japan.

Image: Japanese experts inspect the sabotage on the South Manchurian Railway, 1931. Courtesy Wikimedia Commons

Hirohito

Paranoia and Entrance to War

In the early 1930s there was violence against many political leaders in Japan. In 1929, Hirohito had dismissed the prime minister, and by 1932, the following two prime ministers had been assassinated. In 1936, 1,400 soldiers seized the army ministry and murdered many politicians. By 1940, political parties were dissolved altogether.

In September of 1940, Japan joined the Axis alliance through the Tripartite Pact, in which all three powers agreed that if a currently neutral country were to attack, they would assist each other.

On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in retaliation of the United States’ decision to freeze their assets.

"Thus, uniting one hundred million hearts and discharging the fullest strength of the nation, we expect all our subjects to strive to attain the ultimate objective of this expedition." - Japan's Declaration of War, 1941

Image: The attack on Pearl Harbor. Courtesy Library of Congress

Hirohito

Japanese Surrender

After the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Hirohito surrendered on August 14th, 1945. In his surrender, Hirohito made a historic speech to the public, marking the first time a Japanese emperor had addressed the citizens of Japan.

Click the button below to read Hirohito's address to the public. As you examine this document, consider the following questions:

  1. Why do you think Hirohito decided to address the citizens of Japan directly?
  2. How does Japan justify both their actions in the war and their surrender?

Image: Aerial view of Nagasaki after the Atomic Bomb. Courtesy Library of Congress

Hirohito

Reconciliation and Rebuilding After War

At the end of the war, Hirohito signed a Constitution created by the United States that made the emperor a figurehead. He continued relations with the United States until his death in 1989.

Although Hirohito was in power throughout World War II, it is debated how much influence and power he truly possessed over wartime decisions. However, he is still generally held accountable for failing to reject decisions made by the government.

Image: Emperor Hirohito with President Ronald Regan and Nancy Regan in Tokyo, 1983. Courtesy National Archives

The Allied Leaders of World WAr II

Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin at the Crimean Conference, 1945. Courtesy Library of Congress

Great Britain: Winston Churchill

Image: Winston Churchill, 1942. Courtesy Library of Congress

Churchill

British Leadership

Winston Churchill first became a member of Parliament in 1900 following a brief military career. From 1911 to 1915, Churchill served as the First Lord of the Admiralty, the political head of the Royal Navy. After a failed Naval campaign during World War I, he was ousted from his position and he rejoined the army. After World War I, Churchill became the Secretary of State for War and Air from 1919 to 1921. Until 1940, Churchill was in and out of office, but in 1940, Prime Minister Chamberlain resigned, and Churchill took the post.

"I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat." - Winston Churchill, 1940

Image: "The Roaring Lion," 1941. Courtesy Library and Archives Canada

Churchill

Words as Weapons

In the first month of Churchill’s leadership, Nazi Germany had taken over much of Europe, Russia had signed a nonaggression agreement with Germany, the United States chose to remain neutral, and Japan was about to join forces with the Axis powers.

Furthermore, Germany began to attack Great Britain during the Battle of Britain, a battle between both air forces. After the Battle of Britain, Germany continued to bomb Great Britain during the Blitz. Churchill led his country through speeches that lifted the morale of the British people.

"Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few." - Winston Churchill, The Battle of Britain, 1940

Image: Vendors sell fruit during the Blitz of London. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Photographs from the Battle of Britain. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Watch the following video, and listen to Churchill's "Their Finest Hour" speech. On July 18, 1940, this speech was given to the House of Commons, four days after Paris fell. As you view this video, consider the following questions:

  1. What is Churchill's primary message?
  2. How does Churchill use words to evoke emotion? Is this effective?
  3. How does Churchill characterize the enemy?

Churchill

The Big Three Alliance

In 1941, Churchill managed to convince the President of the United States, Franklin Roosevelt, to help supply Great Britain with resources and weaponry through the Lend-Lease Act. Later, when the United States joined the war, Churchill began working closely with Roosevelt. Churchill also formed an alliance with Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, eventually resulting in the “Big Three” alliance.

Click the button below to review an article discussing the "Big Three" alliance.

Image: Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill during the Tehran Conference, 1943. Courtesy Library of Congress

The Soviet Union: Joseph Stalin

Image: Joseph Stalin, 1942. Courtesy Library of Congress

Stalin

His Rise to Power

Joining the Bolshevik party in 1905, Joseph Stalin took part in the Russian Revolution to overthrow the monarchy. After meeting Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the revolution, Stalin became crucial to the Party by running the Bolshevik newspaper, Pravda. When the Tsar was overthrown, Lenin appointed Stalin as the General Secretary of the Communist Party. After Lenin’s death, Stalin began a campaign to promote himself to dictator.

After coming to power, Stalin worked to industrialize the Soviet Union and to collectivize agriculture. His efforts led to widespread famines.

"You cannot make a revolution with silk gloves." - Joseph Stalin

Image: Lenin and Stalin at Gorki, 1922. Courtesy Wikimedia Commons

Stalin

Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Nonaggression Pact

In 1939, Stalin signed a nonaggression act with Adolf Hitler in an effort to prevent war. As part of the agreement, Stalin and Hitler divided Poland between their respective countries.

In 1941, Stalin ignored his advisors’ warnings that Hitler would not hold to the agreement, and killed those who held the sentiment. By the time Stalin could create a defense, Hitler had taken Ukraine and Belarus.

Image: Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vyacheslav Molotov, signs the Nonaggression Pact, 1939. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

The Battle of Stalingrad

Lasting from August 1942 to February 1943, the Battle of Stalingrad was one of the longest, bloodiest, and most decisive battles of the war. The Soviet victory at Stalingrad marked a turning point of World War II.

Click the button below to learn more about the Battle of Stalingrad.

"Panic makers and cowards must be liquidated on the spot. Not one step backwards without orders from higher headquarters. Commanders… who abandon a position without an order from higher headquarters are traitors to the motherland." - Joseph Stalin, Order No. 227, Battle of Stalingrad
Photographs from the Battle of Stalingrad. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Stalin

The War's End

By the end of World War II, Joseph Stalin had solidified the Soviet Union as a world superpower, and himself as a fierce negotiator. Following the war, Stalin worked to further his power and influence by creating subservient but independent communist regimes in Eastern Europe. He saw his former alliances as enemies, and tried to minimize western influence.

"Ideas are far more powerful than guns." - Joseph Stalin

Click the button below to learn more about the Soviet Union at the end of the war.

Image: Churchill, Harry Truman, and Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, 1945. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

United States: Franklin D. Roosevelt

Image: Franklin Roosevelt Fireside Chat, 1937. Courtesy Library of Congress

Roosevelt

"The Sphinx" of Reelection

Initially elected in the midst of the Great Depression in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd President of the United States. During his first two terms as president, Roosevelt tackled the Great Depression through his New Deal programs designed to create jobs and boost the economy.

Not wanting to break tradition by campaigning for a third term of presidency, President Roosevelt would not give a definitive answer on whether he would run in the 1940 election, and requested to be drafted into the position.

Nicknamed “The Sphinx” by the media, Roosevelt decided to run, and with Germany’s conquest of France and his electoral opponent’s backing, Roosevelt was swiftly reelected.

Image: Roosevelt Campaigning, 1932. Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library

Roosevelt

An Increasingly Divided World

When World War II broke out in 1939, Americans were hesitant to enter the war. The United States was in an economic crisis, and World War I had ended only twenty years prior. Furthermore, Congress had passed neutrality laws that limited involvement in war.

Franklin Roosevelt maintained his stance that American security hinged on Axis defeat. Through his “Fireside Chats”, Roosevelt worked to guide the American people through his decisions.

Click the button below to read about the U.S. conflict between isolationism and intervention.

Image: Roosevelt delivers a Fireside Chat, 1934. Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library

Roosevelt

A Stance of Neutrality

Roosevelt convinced Congress to allow the sale of military supplies to Great Britain. When Churchill claimed the British could not afford to continue to buy from the United States, Roosevelt worked to pass the Lend-Lease Act. Passed in March 1941, Lend-Lease allowed the United States to lend arms to other countries, all while continuing to maintain an official stance of neutrality.

"This nation will remain a neutral nation, but I cannot ask that every American remain neutral in thought as well... Even a neutral cannot be asked to close his mind or his conscience." - Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1939

Image: Britain's Auxiliary Territorial Service move American rifles supplied through the Lend-Lease Act. Courtesy Library of Congress

Roosevelt

The Decision to Declare War

After learning of Japan’s intention to take over French Indo-China, FDR decided to freeze all Japanese assets in the United States. In retaliation, on December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the U.S. Navy at Pearl Harbor, thrusting the United States into a war many now saw as necessary.

Watch the video below containing Roosevelt's declaration of war on Japan. As you view this video, consider the following questions:

  1. How does Roosevelt use words to evoke emotions? Is it effective?
  2. How does Roosevelt characterize the enemy? How is it similar or different from Churchill's characterization?

Roosevelt

A Fourth Term

While running for a fourth presidential term in 1944, Roosevelt’s health was on the decline. After his reelection in 1944, he continued to lead the United States through the war, and he attended the Yalta conference. In April 1945, Roosevelt visited Warm Springs, Georgia, where he died from a cerebral hemorrhage on April 12. The same day, Harry Truman was sworn into office.

Image: Roosevelt's funeral in Hyde Park, New York, 1945. Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library

Engage

To learn more about the ideologies of the political leaders of World War II, examine the series of quotes found below.

Then, using evidence from these quotes, respond to the prompt found below. Please refer to your instructor for essay guidelines.

Write: Compare the quotes to your historical understanding of WWII. In your response, consider the following questions:

  1. How do the quotes exemplify the ideologies of each major leader?
  2. How do the ideologies differ between Axis and Allied powers?
  3. In what ways did speech influence the overall narrative of World War II?

Image: The ruins of Berlin, Germany. Courtesy Imperial War Museum

Thank you for participating in our online unit, "Axis and Allies: The Leaders of World War II." If you would like to learn more about the many resources the Museum of History and Holocaust Education at Kennesaw State University offers, please follow the link below:

This digital lesson was curated and designed by Rachel Rogers from Kennesaw State University in collaboration with staff from the Museum of History and Holocaust Education at Kennesaw State University.

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