Core concepts: creative online activism, Zapatistas, Janus face, information warfare, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Black Lives Matter, Five strategies deployed by creative online activist movements, choreography of assembly, symbolic center, slacktivism , organizational layer

Before the internet was an effective product marketing tool, it was a tool of activism - and social media has extended and complicated the ways activists can use it (in other words, its activist affordances.) It is impossible to study all social media activism. Instead, this chapter takes a few key movements as examples - from 1994 when Mexico's Zapatista movement forced the Mexican government into a ceasefire, to 2017 when Black Lives Matter hashtags now quickly activate publics in the US and beyond. I refer to these movements under the umbrella of creative online activism. What ties these movements together is their creativity in using the affordances of the internet to promote activist agendas and avoid the pitfalls of oversimplification and appropriation.

Note: This chapter focuses on movements that have coalesced (formed) around racial and ethnic identity groups, as well as income inequality and political decisions. The next chapter continues the discussion of activism with focus on movements building around the gender identity of womanhood.

The Zapatistas

In early 1994, only a tiny percentage of the world was online, and the term "social media" did not exist. The internet was very young and very Web 1.0, with static pages that did not allow visitors to contribute. (You can review Web 1.0 vs Web 2.0 in Chapter 2.) Yet our first example of creative online activism begins here, with Mexico's Zapatistas. Creative deployment of the affordances of a young, sparse internet both saved indigenous protesters in Chiapas, Mexico from slaughter and allowed them to influence the new global economy.

The beginning of the story was the end of life as many in rural Mexico knew it. Governments of the US, Canada, and Mexico began negotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in the early 1990s, forging interdependence between their economies. Among other deals, this trade agreement would subsidize corporations taking over Mexican land to grow cheap crops. Many Mexicans - particularly the native, or indigenous people - foresaw that this would lead to drastic alteration of the land and to farming by genetic crop modification and spraying of chemical pesticides.

As their leaders worked toward NAFTA , at first Mexican farmers fought it using traditional methods. In the early 1990s, protestors staged in-person demonstrations at the zocalo (town square) in Mexico City. And they organized and wrote impassioned statements in print media about the devastating consequences NAFTA would have on farming and many other aspects of life in their country. But North American governments ignored these offline pleas and signed NAFTA into effect in 1992 and 1993.

On January 1st, 1994, NAFTA became the law of the land in the US, Mexico, and Canada - and the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) rose up against the Mexican Government under the leadership of a masked man known as Subcomandante (Subcommander) Marcos. This army of "Zapatistas" - an army of mostly poor, rural, indigenous people inspired by the historic Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata - peacefully occupied the city of San Cristóbal de las Casas in the state of Chiapas, to demand that their protests against NAFTA be seen and heard. Rising up against the Mexican government seemed like a crazy move by the EZLN occupiers, many of whom were poor indigenous farmers from the Chiapas area. The Mexican government was enthusiastic about NAFTA, as they would benefit financially from corporate NAFTA investment even if their farmers suffered. So it seemed certain the formidable Mexican army would covertly slaughter the small EZLN forces before their protest could make Mexico look bad as a corporate investment.

But ironically, in this case the internet had what Martinez-Torres describes as a Janus face, helping governments repress people while helping those people protest that repression at the same time. While young, online global networks made it possible for economies to globalize and to crush poor people in the process, they also made it possible to mobilize networks of popular protest and fight back.

Enter information warfare

When on-the-ground resistance alone got the Zapatistas little traction in their resistance to NAFTA, they turned to the internet and began a campaign of information warfare - the strategic use of information and its anticipated effects on receivers to influence the power dynamics in a conflict. Thanks to the affordances of the early internet to connect people in similar struggles in different places, international peace activists were already networked online in the mid-1990s; the internet archive has lists and snapshots of pages describing some of these organizations. Some of these activist organizations were witnessing or supporting similar struggles in other countries, as poor people battled transnational trade agreements that would destroy their ways of life.

The EZLN Army got the international word out about their cause with remarkable speed to these online peace networks. With the charismatic masked leader Subcommandante Marcos as a spokesperson, the EZLN Zapatistas created a dramatic campaign online. Their vivid imagery of the EZLN's masked army of farmers spread rapidly across international online networks.

At the height of their online visibility, twelve days after declaring war on the Mexican Government, the Zapatistas publicly called for a ceasefire. The Mexican government still had the physical power to annihilate EZLN - but now the world was watching. Once EZLN called for peace, any action against their forces including women and children would make Mexico look evil - and risky as a corporate investment destination. As a result, the Mexican government was forced to accept the EZLN ceasefire. They could not reverse NAFTA; it would take more than an awareness campaign to reverse such a powerfully backed agreement. But the EZLN protesters lived and continued their demands for social change.

The EZLN's Information War has inspired many civil social movements visible today. These include current movements against genetically modified food and for "fair trade" compensation of farmers. In terms of online strategies, the Zapatistas' activist campaign was an early example for activists of how media can be used sociopolitically to demand civil rights - and to recognize how, Janus-faced, those same media can also work against those rights.

In the next sections I demonstrate now the Zapatistas' strategies fall under the umbrella of creative online activism and why such strategies remain powerful.

Creative online activism through 2017

Organizers have continued using the internet to mobilize, and their work has arguably been made easier with the development of mobile phone apps and social media. This timeline by Mashable gives a selective overview of noted online activist movements through 2011.

Creative online activism has developed in conjunction with social media apps since the mid-2000s. These apps are certainly not created equal when it comes to facilitating activism; in fact, some have been found to intentionally hinder the exposure of social injustice. For example, although they have had a huge user base for the last decade, Facebook algorithms have been found to hide or slow controversial and "negative" stories from its users feeds , making it a poor platform for activism.

But the platform is only a small part of the recipe for an activist movement. Human creativity has facilitated the use of technologies in activism in ways software developers never imagined. In a typical example of human shaping of technology, Twitter leadership didn't build hashtags into the platform intentionally and even rejected the idea that they would be widely used; human users proved them wrong. Several years later, Twitter hashtags began playing important roles in online activism, including in the Arab Spring protests.

Social media platforms like Twitter are sometimes practically credited with creating movements, but this technological determinism fails to recognize how much complex human wrangling is required to run an online campaign and keep control of its message. Only a small percentage of protestors used Twitter for key information, and then disseminated that information through face-to-face communication and other media. All messages that spread widely online face the threat of oversimplification and appropriation; only the best-executed retain their depth and complexity. And, regardless of platform, the real work for social change still happens across various digital and analog (non-digital) platforms - and most crucially, on the ground.

The Black Lives Matter Movement

One of the most well-known online movements to date is Black Lives Matter. The central phrase and hashtag of this movement came from Alicia Garza and Patrisse Marie Cullors-Brignac in July 2013 in response to the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the killing of 12-year-old Trayvon Martin. Armed with this concise phrase - and fueled by outrage over injustices against black citizens by American institutions including law enforcement today - Black Lives Matter has built into a sophisticated movement online and offline with profound influence on government policy and popular consciousness.

Although its signature phrase began online, the Black Lives Matter movement gained traction over the next year as Twitter users deployed #blacklivesmatter to mobilize on the ground. Subsequent hashtags used in connection with #blacklivesmatter networked protestors and helped them assemble massive on-the-ground demonstrations very quickly after subsequent police killings. These included #ferguson to organize protests in Ferguson, Missouri after police were acquitted in the killing of Michael Brown there in November 2014.

Creative online activist strategies in Black Lives Matter and beyond

Black Lives Matter campaigns have deployed several strategies that were key to the EZLN campaign, as well as to other online activist movements. To make it easy to understand the strategies these movements deployed in common, I will list them, and describe them in the next section.

Five strategies deployed by creative online activist movements:

• 1. Speed
• 2. Visuals
• 3. Performances
• 4. Inclusiveness
• 5. "Masked" leadership

1. Speed

Like the Zapatista online campaign, it was crucial in 2015 that Black Lives Matter protestors mobilize with speed. Responding fast to the actions of government or authorities allowed both movements to gather large publics when outrage over authorities' decisions was high. In Black Lives Matter, immediate response also sent the message that this public would not tolerate police violence any longer - effective immediately.

2. Visuals

In both the Zapatista and Black Lives Matter movements, campaign organizers gathered attention through effective use of visual content. Images of the masked Zapatista army are still widely circulated online. This article in WIRED Magazine explores the spreadable content of the Black Lives Matter movement, especially the visuals - photographs easily shared online that evoked the in-person experience of being black, in protest.

3. Performances

We must also remember the performances involved in each of these protests. The Zapatistas called a truce at a dramatic moment that would have cast the Mexican Government as the villain if they continued to fight the small EZLN army. In Black Lives Matter, hashtags like #handsupdontshoot remind us that these protestors moved together in synced gestures that gave tremendous energy to their on-the-ground protests. Reenactment has also been an effective performance strategy, exemplified in protestors using the #icantbreathe hashtag to reenact the video of Eric Garner dying after police ignored his his repeated pleas of "I can't breathe."

​Online activism scholar Paulo Gerbaudo phrases it this way: Online media can be used for the "choreography of assembly" in organizing on-the-ground demonstrations. That is, online organizers can choreograph individual acts of cultural repetition (memes, discussed more in Chapter 7), such as clothing or gestures protestors can repeat to recognize and reinforce one another's work. And they can organize the meeting places, escape routes, and conduct of massive groups of people. Gerbaudo notes that these actions can influence public consciousness most powerfully when they occur in a symbolic center - some meaningful public place that serves as a theatrical stage for activism to be seen and performed. A park at a city center, a football field, the Olympic medal ceremonies, a memorial statue: All of these have been symbolic centers for protest in the US and abroad.

4. Inclusiveness

Black Lives Matter's strategy was also similar to the Zapatistas' in the inclusiveness of the campaign. It was understood and stated by those in the movement that women must have equal access to the rights being fought for, and that in-family violence was part of what they were fighting. In Black Lives Matter, rights around gender and sexuality were always part of the discussion, as exemplified in this movement "herstory."

Today's social media-fueled movements tend use rhetoric that acknowledges differences in power among the people they fight for or represent. This sets modern rights campaigns apart from some rights movements in the past. Both the Civil Rights and Black Panther movements focused on black men more than other citizens. The 20th century women's rights movements focused more on white women than any others. The 20th century gay rights movement centralized the identities of white gay men. "Not your grandfather's civil rights movement," is one way Black Lives Matter has been described, reminding us that today's movements broaden the focus from fathers and grandfathers to the rest of the family, the organization, and the community.

5. "Masked" organizers

In modern online activism, leaders wear masks - literally, and sometimes, figuratively. In the 20th Century, a much-remembered feature of social activism campaigns like the Civil Rights Movement was their visible leadership and culture of "heroes". Dr. Martin Luther King is commonly remembered as the "father" of the Civil Rights Movement. Meanwhile, as this article by Jamil Cobb on Black Lives Matter reminds us, there were other strategies at work in the Civil Rights movement, and leaders who shunned the spotlight like Ella Baker of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Today, the branding has shifted, with many declaring today's online activist movements "leaderless."

The Zapatista spokesman Subcomandante Marcos was a bridge between these two styles of organization, the 20th century heroic leader versus the 21st century decentalized campaign. Marcos was the Zapatistas' most visible "hero." But he wore a mask, hid his true identity, and chose the false title of "Subcommander" (subordinate Commander) rather than "Commander." A decade later, the "hacktivist" group Anonymous began organizing actions on 4-Chan in which the identities of the organizers and participants were not known; Anonymous made significant appearances in the WTO protests. More recently, there have been figurative masks on many popular online movements including Occupy Wall Street, with all insisting there are no leaders. The strategy of "masked" organizers makes a movement difficult to defeat, while also resisting the persistent surveillance that is a function of the internet, and that can get activists jailed or killed.

Is the internet the savior or the destroyer of social activism?

There are many critiques of online activism as inferior to more traditional forms of activism; for example, former organizer Zeynep Tufecki argues that by removing the hard work and shared risk of social organizing, social media technologies gather demonstrators too quickly for them to understand one another and think together. In another critique, scholar Evgeny Morozov uses the term "slacktivism" to characterize certain low-risk levels of "activism" such as signing online petitions, which offer lazy participants the illusion they are contributing significantly, at zero risk to themselves. While these critiques may overlook the subtle shifts in public consciousness that online chatter can effect, they have merit. As illustrated by the Zapatistas in Chiapas and Black Lives Matter in Missouri, online activism is at its most powerful when on-the-ground action provides roots to online campaigns.

However they are branded, successful online activism movements are never dependent only on leaders; and they are also never leaderless. Rather, modern activist movements in the US in particular are often ignited through interactions between key driving forces or personalities, and then mobilized networked groups of people who respond together. This idea, which author David Karpf has called an "organizational layer" of American political advocacy, may be the closest we can come to accurately describing the real effects of the internet on how we do activism.

Breaking news: White nationalists and supremacists in Charlottesville

Note: This video on the August 2017 Charlottesville demonstrations contains graphic violence and offensive language

At the time of this writing, a movement with ties to Alt-Right organizers and US Terrorists has just demonstrated in Charlottesville, Virginia, to protest the removal of a statue of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. The event was billed as Unite the Right and is called a "white nationalist" movement by some, and footage from event (including the video embedded above) shows demonstrators collectively displaying gestures and repeating phrases of white supremacy and neo-Nazism. Violence occurred on all days of the demonstration; in the worst incident, a neo-Nazi rammed his car into a crowd of counter-protestors, killing a woman and injuring dozens of others.

The disturbing scenes in Charlottesvile occurred the weekend this book was completed, so instead of analyzing this demonstration I leave it to you. Watch the embedded video and then answer this question: Was the August 2017 Charlottesville protest the product of an online activist movement? If so, how is this movement like the movements analyzed in this chapter, and how is it different? If you feel this protest was not part of an activist movement, what was it?

creative online activism

activist movements that deploy creativity in using the affordances of the internet to promote activist agendas and avoid the pitfalls of oversimplification and appropriation.

Zapatistas

an army of mostly poor, rural, indigenous people rose up against the Mexican government in 1994, and successfully used the early internet to reach out for witnesses and support.

Janus face

a symbol, derived from ancient Roman mythology, of something that simultaneously works toward two opposing goals.

information warfare

the strategic use of information and its anticipated effects on receivers to influence the power dynamics in a conflict

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

An agreement between the US, Mexico, and Canada in the early 1990s forging interdependence between their economies, including subsidies for corporations taking over Mexican land to grow cheap crops.

Black Lives Matter

a sophisticated movement online and offline, fueled by outrage over injustices against black citizens by American institutions including law enforcement today

Five strategies deployed by creative online activist movements:

Speed, Visuals, Performances, Inclusiveness, Masked leadership

choreography of assembly

Paulo Gerbaudo's term describing how successful online organizers preplan social activist movements that will ensue on the ground.

symbolic center

Paulo Gerbaudo's term for a meaningful public place that serves as a theatrical stage for activism to be seen and performed, such as park at a city center, a football field, the Olympic medal ceremonies, or a memorial statue.

slacktivism

coined by Evgeny Morozov, this concept relates to critiques of online activism as inferior to more traditional forms of activism, with organizing online perceived as so fast, easy, and risk-free, it results in insufficient gains or change.

organizational layer

Political scientist David Karpf's term for the networked groups of people responding together who he argues form the most important agents for change in American political advocacy today.

Did you get all that?

Let's check if the message is getting through.

How is the internet "Janus-faced?"

• A.) It is very beautifully put together
• B.) It has two faces, so can be used simultaneously as a tool for and against a cause.
• C.) It is very ugly in the biases conveyed within
• D.) All of the above
• E.) B and C only

What and where were the EZLN Zapatistas protesting?

• A.) The drug war in Mexico
• B.) The US election of Donald Trump
• C.) The Mexican government's agreement to join NAFTA
• D.) All of the above
• E.) B and C only

What circumstances led directly to the beginning of the Black Lives Matter movement, according to this chapter?

• A.) The Southern Christian Leadership Council began the movement in the 1960s
• B.) Patrice Cullors and Alicia Garza started the use of the phrase and hashtag #blacklivesmatter in 2014
• C.) The killing of black citizens by authorities led to large on-the-ground Black Lives Matter demonstrations in 2015
• D.) All of the above
• E.) B and C only

Which of the following are characteristics shared by creative online activist movements including Black Lives Matter and the Zapatistas, as discussed in this chapter?

• A.) Visual content and performances
• B.) Speed and inclusiveness
• C.) Masked organizers
• D.) All of the above
• E.) B and C only