Image: View of the Bismarck Memorial in the Tiergarten in Berlin, 2009. Courtesy Wladyslaw via Wikimedia Commons
The Kennesaw State University Department of Museums, Archives and Rare Books (MARB) presents exhibitions, public programs, collections, and educational services supporting KSU’s mission and encouraging dialogue about the past and its significance today. The Museum of History and Holocaust Education, as a unit of MARB, has developed a series of online modules, including this one, for university students to explore pivotal moments from the history of World War II and the Holocaust.
This online unit analyzes the role that German nationalism (support for the self-determination and autonomy of the German people) played in the formation and expansion of Nazi Germany as well as its prosecution of the Holocaust. In redefining what it meant to be "German," the Nazi regime appropriated German nationalism in order to justify and rationalize the Holocaust as well as its conquest of vast swathes of Europe. Highlighting a diverse selection of sources, this unit reflects on how ideas of German nationalism laid the foundation for genocide.
As a companion to this module, the Museum of History and Holocaust Education presents "From Revolution to Empire: Germany 1848 to 1871," an educational module focused on the unification of Germany. "From Revolution to Empire" provides important context to better understand the ideas of German nationalism discussed here. You can learn more and connect to that module by clicking the button below:
Image: Art installation in the MHHE exhibition Threads of Memory. Courtesy Museum of History and Holocaust Education at Kennesaw State University
Essential Questions
Using the primary source material and content in this online unit, respond to the three essential questions found below. In your responses, include evidence from the content in this online unit. Please refer to the directions provided by your instructor on submitting your responses to these essential questions as well as to the questions posed throughout this unit.
- What has it meant to be "German," and how has German identity changed over time?
- How did Hitler use German nationalism to justify the expansion of Nazi Germany?
- How did German nationalism influence the Nazis' racist ideology as well as the Holocaust?
Image: 1937 photograph of a stroller with a Swastika painted on the back. Shortly after the Nazi Party's rise, everyday objects were decorated with symbols of the new regime. Courtesy German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)
Table of Contents
- German States and Wars of Unification
- The Rise of Hitler and Nazism
- Race, Ethnicity, and Religious Identity in Nazi Germany
- Engage
- Further Readings
German States and the Wars of Unification
Before German unification in 1871, "Germany" itself was largely an idea. The Holy Roman Empire in central Europe was the nearest semblance of a politically united "Germany" before unification. In reality, the Empire was a confederation made up of over 300 duchies, fiefdoms, principalities, electorates, and other political entities. Among these was Brandenburg-Prussia (or simply Prussia), which would eventually unite many of the German states into the nation of Germany in 1871. How did so many distinct states become united under the German flag? To answer this question, we must first look to the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte and the ensuing battles to secure dominance within Europe.
The French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte had dissolved the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, though German-speaking peoples in central Europe continued to operate interdependently. Ethnic bonds became especially pronounced during the so-called War of Liberation against Napoleonic France, but the German states were hardly unique in that aspect. The advent of Napoleon and the First French Empire had the widespread effect of inspiring radically nationalist sentiments in regions across Europe under French domination. In 1813, as Prussia and its allies marched on Paris after Napoleon's disastrous defeat in Russia, King Friedrich Wilhelm III introduced a new military honor called the Iron Cross. The Iron Cross would remain a distinctive decoration of the German military through World War II, as evidenced in the 1939 Iron Cross below.
Note the swastika in the center of the cross, a poignant reflection of the Nazi regime's ideological appropriation of German (and Prussian) history.
Background Image: Painting by Horace Vernet depicting the Battle of Wagram, 1836. Courtesy Britannica
The revolutions which swept across Europe in 1848 engulfed Prussia as well, and the tricolor German flag of red, black, and gold became a symbol of German national identity in this period. But the failure of revolution and the lack of any coherent strategy for unification ensured that the German states of central Europe remained separate national entities. However, the visionary leadership of Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor under King Wilhelm I, reshaped Europe's political map. After winning two brief territorial wars with Denmark and Austria, Bismarck provoked a war with France in 1870. In 1871, Prussia emerged victorious, and Bismarck proclaimed the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles outside Paris. Bismarck's diplomacy and statesmanship played a pivotal role in the unification of Germany into a single nation, and the Nazi regime often invoked his legacy. Below, a monument to Bismarck stands prominently outside the Buchenwald concentration camp, which the Soviets demolished shortly after liberating the camp.
Click the button below to learn more about early German nationalism and motivations for German unification.
As you review this material, consider the following question: How did prominent leaders like Bismarck characterize German unification, and why did they think it was significant?
Background Image: The third version of the proclamation of Prussian king Wilhelm I as German Emperor at Versailles, by Anton von Werner, 1885. Courtesy Bismarck-Museum Friedrichsruh via Wikimedia Commons
This digital lesson was curated and designed by Mason Allen from the University of Georgia in collaboration with staff from the Museum of History and Holocaust Education at Kennesaw State University.