This visual essay addresses and analyzes mid-twentieth century historical events, as well as government policies and institutions that uphold and enforce residential racial segregation within the U.S. This observation and analysis are applied in the context of Milwaukee's Metropolitian Area through a visually constructed study. Within this observation, Milwaukee's Metropolitian area residential grid is displayed showing the long-term effects and consequences of the mid-twentieth century governmental policies and institutions that laid the foundation for segregated housing in Milwaukee.
The Domino Effect
The United States stock market crashed in 1929, marking one of the worst economic collapses in United States history. The crash was a result of overzealous confidence during the Roaring Twenties that created an unsustainable trajectory for the market that was unable to be maintained. The crash inevitably forced businesses to close their doors, people lost their homes, and people's life savings were completely decimated. The crash led the United States into the Great Depression which lasted from 1929-1933.
During the early 1930s, there was a series of bank failures, businesses claiming bankruptcy, and record-high unemployment that left millions without any source of income. Property values depreciated and families lost the ability to sell their homes. This inevitably led to a home mortgage crisis that was coined The National Mortgage Crisis of the 1930s.
During the transfer of power from Herbert Hoover 1929-1933 to Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933-1945, The United States was sold on FDR's "New Deal" that gave financial hope to people through a comprehensive economic recovery and relief program that was designed to tackle record-high economic devastation. During this time period, the National Housing Act of 1934 was passed, establishing the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). This institution was designed to support the recovery of the housing market and provided funding to people looking to buy, sell, or rebuild their homes.
The FHA established The Homeowners Loan Corporation in June of 1933 (HOLC) as a part of the New Deal economic recovery program. HOLC was a way to create a federal mortgage lending system during the Great Depression, which was designed to economically assist families that were defaulted on their mortgages or in current foreclosure.
HOLC created maps of neighborhoods based on classifications that related to residents' race, ethnicity, occupation, income, proximity to recreational facilities and environmental hazards, etc. These classifications would determine if neighborhoods were labeled green, blue, yellow, and red. Green, marking pristine neighborhoods that were predominately White and close to recreational facilities, and hazardous red neighborhoods that were predominately Black and Latinx and located near environmental hazards. Consequently, these maps engendered White flight that largely contributed to intercity property value depletion.
With the help of residential security maps lenders and banks had direct tools to discriminate and disproportionately give out home loans to Black families in Milwaukee. This systemic denial of investments decades later has resulted in a monumentally disproportionate rate of homeownership in Milwaukee amongst Black and White families.
Federal Housing Association (FHA) — 451 Seventh St. SW Washington, D.C.
The Federal Home Loan Bank Board Building located at 320 1st Street NW in Washington, D.C
The Aftermath
Economic and Racial Segregation throughout the Nation became prominent after the creation of HOLC. Redlining created hypersegregated neighborhoods that are still suffering the impacts of the discriminatory housing policies and practices today.
This essay will now provide a visual representation of the aftermath Milwaukee, WI is left with today, as it heads into its 88th year since the establishment of HOLC.
30 years after the National Housing Act was passed, The Civil Rights Act was passed.
In 1964, Congress passed Public Law 88-352 (78 Stat. 241). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Provisions of this civil rights act forbade discrimination on the basis of sex, as well as, race in hiring, promoting, and firing.
Despite the federal policy, Milwaukee still faced extreme hyper segregation
Photo Illustrated "Stop school segregation march Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1964"
Vel Phillips was born on February 18, 1934 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and over the course of her 95 years of life became on of the most prominent Black Women and political figures in the Black community. Vel Phillips, who was first elected to the Common Council in Milwaukee on April 3, 1956, would become the first Black Woman elect, beginning a series of firsts for her community in the State of Wisconsin and City of Milwaukee.
During her time as an Alderwoman, Vel Phillips created progressive legislation that aimed to create a better quality of life for the Black community.
Vel Phillips strongly advocated for fair housing in the city of Milwaukee, as weak Fair Housing legislation did little for the Black communities suffering the effects of segregation that were not covered in the original housing bill and Civil Rights Act. She created the Phillip’s Housing Ordinance, which if passed, would have outlawed housing discrimination in Milwaukee.
When she first introduced her housing ordinance to the Common Council on May 1, 1962 — she was defeated 18-1, with the one vote in favor of the ordinance being her own. Phillips reintroduced the bill three other times, only to have it fail with her vote being the lone vote in support every time. After multiple failed attempts and a Common Council that was unwilling to budge, Vel Phillips was able to secure the support and assistance of the Milwaukee NAACP Youth Council, who was more than happy to assist in organizing pickets and marches across the city of Milwaukee.
The Fair Housing Act of 1968
The Fair Housing Act was meant to be an expansion of previous housing policies intended to address residential racial segregation within the U.S.
The 1968 Act expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, sex, (and as amended) handicap and family status. Title VIII of the Act is also known as the Fair Housing Act (of 1968).
Photo Illustrated is Wisconsin Historical Society, Father Groppi leading a fair housing march, 1966 https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/Records/Image/IM25167
Photo Illustrated is Metropolitan Milwaukee's Fair Housing Council INC (MMFHC) located at 759 N. Milwaukee.
Established in October 1977 as a private non-profit organization, MMFHC was designed to promote fair housing equity throughout the state of Wisconsin through promoting racial and economically integrated housing.
This photo essay will now walk you through selected neighborhoods throughout Milwaukee's Metro area that will visually highlight and represent the racial and economic housing inequities throughout the city.
The Historical Third Ward in Milwaukee was founded in 1875.
According to a study published by Chris Kolmar, a real estate agent and businessman of over 10 years — The Third Ward is rated the wealthiest neighborhood to live in Milwaukee.
The Third Ward is predominantly White and its residents are made up of mostly lawyers, doctors, and high-level executives.
According to Kolmar’s study, the median income in the Historic Third Ward is $84,391 with houses priced 1.6x higher than the national median.
The Historical Third Ward is a good example of a “Green Area” on the Residential Security Maps. Residents in this area do not disproportionately struggle to access home loans.
Residents in this area also find their homes close to some of Milwaukee’s most acclaimed restaurants, shops and cultural attractions. While we do not access HOLC maps now, we can access studies such as Kolmar’s that highlight the best neighborhoods to live in. Same concept — different form.
BayView is a neighborhood right off the the lake near South Shore Park. Bay View is a predominantly White Area and according to Kolmar’s study is ranked 27 of the wealthiest neighborhoods in Milwaukee, WI with the median income being $58,175.
According to Kolmar’s study, Riverwest is ranked 81 of the wealthiest neighborhoods in Milwaukee, WI, with the median income being $43,781.
Known as an “eclectic neighborhood” Riverwest has been named of the best neighborhoods to live in Milwaukee.
Milwaukee's i-43 Interstate Highway System Destroyed Black Neighborhoods.
During the 1960s the United States was in the middle of a Civil Rights movement addressing systemic racism and inequality. During this period of legalized segregation, many Black communities were self-sufficient with successful commercial businesses and residential housing. This success however was largely disrupted by a nationwide federal highway program pursuing urban renewal with the intention of "slum clearance."
Slum clearance reinforced segregation and neighborhood disinvestments, traping Black residents in a cycle of poverty. During this period of time slum clearance became the primary excuse for large-scale displacement through highway construction projects.
“It was really more where you could intentionally see that they were interrupting the progress of black people. Black people were making progress, businesses were there and all of that was interrupted when the expressways came,”
As i-43 was constructed in the 1960s, predominantly Black Milwaukee residents were impacted. The new highway system permitted fast traveling from the city to the suburbs, which was convenient for White residents and businesses. HOLC maps, designating predominantly Black areas as Red Zones, allowed Affluent, White residents to avoid the zones that would be turned into highways. According to an article published by Michael Carriere, 17,000 homes and nearly 1,000 businesses were demolished and forced to relocate due to the construction of i-43. With the North side being disproportionately targeted by the project, some communities still haven’t recovered decades later, largely due to the upheaval.
Due to racial hostility and housing segregation in the 1930s, Bronzeville was the sole neighborhood in Milwaukee where Black residents were allowed to live. Bronzeville consisted of beautiful restaurants, jazz clubs and several other thriving black-owned small businesses. Bronzeville became the heart and soul of community for Black Milwaukee residents — and now serves as a historic representation of what was once a hub of Black culture in the city that was destroyed by the creation of the highway i-43.
Above: Brief History Remembering Bronzeville. Below: Then and Now — The Effects of Gentrification in Bronzeville.
"Above is a sit-down interview between Dr. Sandra E. Jones and Black Nouveau producer Alexandria Mack to discuss her new book "Voices of Milwaukee Bronzeville" which highlights the historic Milwaukee neighborhood through people who grew up there."
"Above is a more in-depth Webinar Q&A with Dr. Sandra Jones, author of Voices of Milwaukee Bronzeville and Lecturer at the Department of African and African Diaspora Studies. Sponsored by The Department of African and African Diaspora Studies (October 1, 2021)."
Harambee has been a hub for Black Culture in Milwaukee since the 1930’s. Harambee is a community of working class families. According to Kolmar’s study Harambee is ranked 182 of Milwaukee’s wealthiest neighborhoods with the median income reported as $19,812.
This is a photo I took near Harambee neighborhood in Milwaukee, WI. The sign says “Keep the Change Don’t Support Panhandling”
This photo was taken in the Harmbee neighborhood. Residents on this block live alongside i-43 — just steps away. Studies have shown residents who live closer to highways are exposed to higher amounts of carbon emissions and are exposed to ultra-fine particles released by passing vehicles increasing the risk of premature death and heart attacks.
“2000 Denver study showed that children living within 250 yards or 228.6 meters of a highway with 20,000 vehicles per day are 6X more likely to develop all types of cancer and 8X more likely to get leukemia.”
This photo illustrates a community divided by i-43.
This Photo was taken near N. 7th St. Off i-43 in Milwaukee, WI. This person with children lives just steps from the interstate.
The Northcott Neighborhood House was founded in 1961. This is a community based organization dedicated to providing economic and employment opportunities to the community.
Many working class families live near the Northcott Neighborhood Community House.
The North Division predominantly Black and made up of low-income, working-class families. The North Division is an example of a “red area” on the residential security maps created by HOLC.
According to Kolmar’s study the North Division is ranked 177 of the wealthiest neighborhoods in Milwaukee, WI. The median income in the North Division is reported as $22,031.